Wilson ships 108 balls to each team within 24 hours of championship games; 54 for practice and 54 for the game.
Teams present their 54 game balls to the officials on game day for inspection, then a DNA ink is added to the laces to indicate they are the authentic on-field game balls.
Public programs such as Social Security and
Medicare might change in ways that reflect popular beliefs that people will work
beyond traditional retirement ages of 65 or 67. But a paper from the National
Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) sets out to analyze whether older Americans actually
have the health capacity to work longer.
To put it bluntly, are older workers healthy
enough to retire later? “Health Capacity to Work at Older Ages: Evidence from
the U.S.” uses two methods to assess capacity to work at older ages. The first asks:
if people with a given mortality rate today were to work as much as people with
the same mortality rate worked in the past, how much could they work?
The paper’s authors make two calculations
based on plots of the relationship between employment and mortality over time,
using data from Current Population Survey and the Human Mortality Database from
1977 to 2010. They focused on men, as sharply increasing rates of women’s labor
force participation over time make it difficult to interpret the results for
women.
The second method asks: if people with a
given level of health were to work as much as their younger counterparts in
similar health, how much could they work?
The method is built on research that explores
the ability of workers just over the age of 62—the Social Security Early
Eligibility Age (EEA)—to work, based on the relationship between health and
retirement or disability status for slightly younger workers, those age 57 to
61.
They used data from the Health and Retirement
Study (HRS) to estimate the relationship between health and employment for a
sample of younger males and females, age 51 to 54.
They use those estimates along with the
actual characteristics of older individuals, age 55 to 74, to project the
latter’s capacity to work based on health.
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What part does education play in health and retirement?
They also explore whether health capacity to
work varies by education group, as averages for the population as a whole may
mask substantial heterogeneity in workers’ ability to extend their work lives.
They explored how self-assessed health, a broad
summary measure of health, has evolved over time by education. One challenge
with such an analysis is that average levels of education are rising over time.
Relying on fixed education categories, such as high school dropout, may be
problematic when the share of the population in this category is changing
substantially. They overcome this challenge by creating education quartiles and
exploring how health by education quartile has changed over time.
Their central finding is that both methods
suggest significant additional health capacity to work at older ages. They
estimated that men would work an average of 4.2 additional years between the
ages of 55 and 69 if the employment mortality relationship that existed in 1977
were in effect today. This is an increase of more than 50% relative to the
average 7.9 years currently worked in this age range.
This estimate reflects substantially higher
employment—16 percentage points higher at ages 55 to 59, 27 points at ages 60
to 64, and 42 points at ages 65 to 69—relative to actual 2010 employment
rates. Results using this method depend on the base year used for comparison,
as both employment and mortality are changing over time—for example,
estimated additional work capacity is 1.8 years when using 1995 (roughly the
trough of employment in recent years) as the base year.
In interpreting these results, they caution
that this method implicitly assumes that all gains in life expectancy can
translate into longer work lives. If one instead uses the NCFRR’s logic that a
year of additional life expectancy might translate into eight additional months
of work and four additional months of retirement, for example, these values
could be multiplied by two-thirds.
The
paper can be downloaded free of charge online.